Oedipus Rex Essay Example for Free

Oedipus Rex Essay â€Å"Fear? What should a man fear? It’s all chance, chance rules our lives. Not a man on earth can see a day ahead, groping through the dark. Better to live at random, best we can.† (lines 1068-1072) The themes of fate and light and darkness are prominent in Oedipus Rex, a play written in ancient Greece by the famous poet Sophocles. Oedipus was a powerful Greek king and was notable for his compassion, sense of justice and his swiftness of thought and action. Unfortunately for him, his life fell ill when the prophecy of his birth came true. Throughout the play, the audience experiences a series of emotions. They experience pity, fear, and anger. At the end of the play, the audience may or may not experience a katharsis, a cleansing or purgation of emotions. The dispute between whether Oedipus should be viewed as a victim or merely a part of the gods manifesting their power and thereby teaching man a lesson is a common argument still in literature today. As many members of an audience believe, Oedipus can appear as having been victimized by the prophecy stricken upon him at birth. Oedipus, being born into such a horrible predicament, had no choice but to live his life as he did always afraid of the horrible outcome of his fate. His parents Laius and Jocasta chose to selfishly bind there son’s feet together and abandon him as a way of making sure they would never see him again and never be vulnerable to the day that Oedipus’ prophecy would come true. Therefore, the emotion of pity arises in the audience and Oedipus is viewed as a victim of a very tragic fate. However, it is important to consider whether he inflicted more agony into his life by trying to fight against his fate. Were the gods punishing Oedipus and ultimately all of mankind because of his retaliation? If so, not only was Oedipus punished, but also his parents were for interfering with the gods’ plans. Oedipus suffered the consequence of losing his sight and his mother committed suicide because of her shame and embarrassment. Today, some view the idea of fate as something planned by a greater being and for human beings, out of our control. For Oedipus and his parents, they thought that they could change their fate but as an outcome and consequence for disrespecting the gods, there was no way to escape it. As Oedipus eagerly attempted to uncover the truth about his fate, acting decisively and deliberately refusing to shield himself from the truth. Although we see Oedipus as a playing-piece of fate, the irony becomes so magnified that it seems as if Oedipus was willingly bringing catastrophe upon himself. In one of Oedipus’ speeches, he declares that when he discovers the truth he will excommunicate the murderer from Thebes and punish him severely. Ironically, Oedipus is the murderer himself that he spoke so viciously about and he leaves Thebes and blinds himself after he finds that Jocasta has hanged herself. Despite the many character flaws that Oedipus withholds, such as quickness to anger, stubbornness, ignorance and arrogance, rather than viewing his fate as a natural result of the virtues and vices of his character, Oedipus teaches mankind a lesson in humility. Like many tragedies, Oedipus Rex teaches a lesson of morality to the audience. It teaches the audience that it is better to be humble and that even if you are a good leader, it does not necessarily mean that you are a good person. Oedipus Rex also teaches that no matter your past or what you do to change your fate, it will always catch up to you somehow. â€Å"People of Thebes, my countrymen, look on Oedipus. He solved the famous riddle with his brilliance, he rose to power, a man beyond all power. Who could behold his greatness without envy? Now what a black sea of terror has overwhelmed him. Now as we keep our watch and wait the final day, count no man happy till he dies, free of pain at last.† (lines 1678-1684) These words, spoken by the chorus, form the ending of Oedipus Rex. The chorus announces that even though Oedipus solved the riddle of the Sphinx, he was never happy with his life and his fate and he caused his own fall. Rather than a victim to his fate, he was the antagonist to his fate.

Mokshagundam Vishveshwariah Essay Example for Free

Mokshagundam Vishveshwariah Essay Mokshagundam Vishveshwariah, KCIE,, (popularly known as Sir MV; 15 September 1860 – 14 April 1962 was a notable Indian engineer, scholar, statesman and the Diwan of Mysore during 1912 to 1918. He was a recipient of the Indian Republics highest honor, the Bharat Ratna, in 1955. He was knighted as a Commander of the British Indian Empire by King George V for his myriad contributions to the public good. Every year, 15 September is celebrated as Engineers Day in India in his memory. He is held in high regard as a pre-eminent engineer of India. see more:bangalore essay He was the chief designer of the flood protection system for the city of Hyderabad, as well as the chief engineer responsible for the construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara dam in Mysore. He is also revered a lot in the state of Karnataka. Sir MV was born in 1861 in a Telugu Brahmin family to Mokshagundam Srinivasa Shastry and Venkatalakshmamma in Muddenahalli village, 40 miles from Bangalore, India. Their family migrated from Mokshagundam village in Prakasam district in Andhra Pradesh. His father was a Sanskrit scholar and an authority on Hindu Dharmashastras (theology), besides being an Ayurvedic practitioner. Visvesvaraya lost his father at the age of 15. He enrolled for primary school in Chikballapur and attended high school in Bangalore. He earned his Bachelor of Arts from Central College,Bangalore affiliated to Madras University in 1881 and later studied civil engineering at the prestigious College of Engineering, Pune, popularly known as CoEP. Upon graduating as an engineer, Visvesvaraya took up a job with the Public Works Department (PWD) of Mumbai and was later invited to join the Indian Irrigation Commission. He implemented an extremely intricate system of irrigation in the Deccan area. He also designed and patented a system of automatic weir water floodgates that were first installed in 1903 at the Khadakvasla Reservoir near Pune. These gates were employed to raise the flood supply level of storage in the reservoir to the highest level likely to be attained by a flood without causing any damage to the dam. Based on the success of these gates, the same system was installed at the Tigra Dam in Gwalior and the Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) Dam in Mandya/ Mysore,Karnataka. In 1906-07, the Government of India sent him to Eden, Africa to study water supply and drainage system and the project prepared by him was implemented in Eden[disambiguation needed] successfully. Visvesvaraya achieved celebrity status when he designed a flood protection system for the city of Hyderabad. He was instrumental in developing a system to protect Visakhapatnam port from sea erosion. Visvesvaraya supervised the construction of the KRS Dam across the Cauvery River from concept to inauguration. This dam created the biggest reservoir in Asia when it was built. He was rightly called the Father of modern Mysore state (now Karnataka): During his period of service with the Government of Mysore state, he was responsible for the founding of, (under the Patronage of Mysore Government), the Mysore Soap Factory, the Parasitoide Laboratory, the Mysore Iron Steel Works (now known as Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Limited) in Bhadravathi, the Sri Jayachamarajendra Polytechnic Institute, the Bangalore Agricultural University, the State Bank of Mysore, The Century Club, Mysore Chambers of Commerce and numerous other industrial ventures. He encouraged private investment in industry during his tenure as Diwan of Mysore. He was instrumental in charting out the plan for road construction between Tirumala and Tirupati. He was known for sincerity, time management and dedication to a cause.

The Heroes of Tim OBriens The Things They Carried Essay examples --

The Heroes of Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried  Ã‚   The word "hero" is so often used to describe people who overcome great difficulties and rise to the challenge that is set before them without even considering the overwhelming odds they are up against. In our culture, heroes are glorified in literature and in the media in various shapes and forms. However, I believe that many of the greatest heroes in our society never receive the credit that they deserve, much less fame or publicity. I believe that a hero is simply someone who stands up for what he/she believes in. A person does not have to rush into a burning building and save someone's life to be a hero. Someone who is a true friend can be a hero. A hero is someone who makes a difference in the lives of others simply by his/her presence. In Tim O'Brien's novel, The Things They Carried, the true heroes stand out in my mind as those who were true friends and fought for what they believed in. These men and women faced the atrocities of war on a daily basis, as explained by critic Dav id R. Jarraway's essay, "'Excremental Assault' in Tim O'Brien: Trauma and Recovery in Vietnam War Literature" and by Vietnam Veteran Jim Carter. Yet these characters became heroes not by going to drastic measures to do something that would draw attention to themselves, but by being true to their own beliefs and by making a difference to the people around them. One of the most striking examples of a hero in O'Brien's novel is the character Elroy Berdahl in the story "On the Rainy River." Berdahl runs the Tip Top Lodge near the Canadian border and takes O'Brien in at a point in his life where he feels he has nowhere and no one to turn to. Berdahl does not question O'Brien or try to persuad... ...SAP. King, Rosemary. "O'Brien's 'How to Tell a True War Story.'" The Explicator. 57.3 (1999): 182. Expanded Academic ASAP. Lopez, Ken. "Tim O'Brien: An Introduction to His Writing." Ken Lopez - Bookseller. 1997. 8 Oct 1999. . Passaro, Vince. "The Things They Carried (Review)." Harper's Magazine. 299.1791 (1999): 80. Expanded Academic ASAP. Robinson, Daniel. "Getting It Right: The Short Fiction of Tim O'Brien." Studies in Contemporary Fiction. 40.3 (1999): 257. Expanded Academic ASAP.    The student may wish to begin the paper with the following quote: Ah for a young man all looks fine and noble if he goes down in war, hacked to pieces under a slashing bronze blade he lies there dead. . .but whatever death lays bare all wounds are marks of glory. (Homer 22.83-87)       The Heroes of Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried Essay examples -- The Heroes of Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried  Ã‚   The word "hero" is so often used to describe people who overcome great difficulties and rise to the challenge that is set before them without even considering the overwhelming odds they are up against. In our culture, heroes are glorified in literature and in the media in various shapes and forms. However, I believe that many of the greatest heroes in our society never receive the credit that they deserve, much less fame or publicity. I believe that a hero is simply someone who stands up for what he/she believes in. A person does not have to rush into a burning building and save someone's life to be a hero. Someone who is a true friend can be a hero. A hero is someone who makes a difference in the lives of others simply by his/her presence. In Tim O'Brien's novel, The Things They Carried, the true heroes stand out in my mind as those who were true friends and fought for what they believed in. These men and women faced the atrocities of war on a daily basis, as explained by critic Dav id R. Jarraway's essay, "'Excremental Assault' in Tim O'Brien: Trauma and Recovery in Vietnam War Literature" and by Vietnam Veteran Jim Carter. Yet these characters became heroes not by going to drastic measures to do something that would draw attention to themselves, but by being true to their own beliefs and by making a difference to the people around them. One of the most striking examples of a hero in O'Brien's novel is the character Elroy Berdahl in the story "On the Rainy River." Berdahl runs the Tip Top Lodge near the Canadian border and takes O'Brien in at a point in his life where he feels he has nowhere and no one to turn to. Berdahl does not question O'Brien or try to persuad... ...SAP. King, Rosemary. "O'Brien's 'How to Tell a True War Story.'" The Explicator. 57.3 (1999): 182. Expanded Academic ASAP. Lopez, Ken. "Tim O'Brien: An Introduction to His Writing." Ken Lopez - Bookseller. 1997. 8 Oct 1999. . Passaro, Vince. "The Things They Carried (Review)." Harper's Magazine. 299.1791 (1999): 80. Expanded Academic ASAP. Robinson, Daniel. "Getting It Right: The Short Fiction of Tim O'Brien." Studies in Contemporary Fiction. 40.3 (1999): 257. Expanded Academic ASAP.    The student may wish to begin the paper with the following quote: Ah for a young man all looks fine and noble if he goes down in war, hacked to pieces under a slashing bronze blade he lies there dead. . .but whatever death lays bare all wounds are marks of glory. (Homer 22.83-87)      

Is Downloading Free Music from the Internet Legal? :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Is Downloading Free Music from the Internet Legal? Nowadays, it is extremely easy to download free music from the internet. All someone has to do is download some peer to peer file-sharing application such as Kazaa, Edonkey, Blubster, or Bearshare, and you have unlimited access to download just about anything that you please. But is downloading free music from one of these applications legal? I think that it is. This paper will look at both sides of the argument. The first online peer to peer file-sharing application was Napster. Napster allowed people to copy music from their CDs onto their computers in mp3 format. They then allowed other members of Napster to download these songs onto their computers. Once this caught on, millions of people were downloading thousands of songs a day. And as you can imagine, this did not make the record companies happy with the idea that people were getting their music for free instead of buying the CD. It also caused a problem with some of the recording artists. Most notably Metallica. In 2000, Metallica filed a lawsuit against Napster and won. As a result, Napster banned about 300,000 of its users who were sharing Metallica songs. Soon after, the RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America) filed a suit against Napster and the file-sharing server was forced to shut down. [1] You kind of have to wonder if the downloading of mp3s really hurt the recording artists. When the artist makes a CD, they make relatively little money from it. Most of the millions that an artist makes is from merchandising and endorsements. Most of the money from CD sales goes to the record industries executives. In an article from Young Money, Meredith Corbin states that â€Å"the executives from the recording industry should change the way they operate by either lowering the price of CDs or taking a pay cut.

Buying a House Is Better Than Renting

Buying a house is a better option than renting an apartment. † In this essay I will discuss about the major benefits of buying a house rather than renting an apartments. While it can be costly it is a safer place to live that has long term-investment and tax advantage. Buying a house may be difficult and it can be a confusing process, even for veteran buyers. Here are some tasks that housing experts say before getting into the buying a house. Get financials in order. Buyers should check their credit score, taxes, 401(k) s and other aspects of their financial situation to determine the maximum amount they are comfortable affording for their monthly mortgage, utilities, maintenance, taxes and insurance. If one’s credit score is low, he or she may need to get it higher before applying for a mortgage. A bad credit score may not just affect the buyers’ rates, but may prevent them from getting a mortgage. Buyers should also get pre-approved by a broker or lender — that means they get an agreement by a bank to lend the buyer up to a specific amount for a home, and the bank tells sellers that financing is already lined up. When a buyer finds the right house, he or she make an offer and apply for a mortgage. While every local market is different, most economists say buyers are generally in the driver's seat today this mean, buyers can ask to lower the price of prospected home. Fifty-three percent of homeowners believe a seller's market is still two or more years away, according to a survey of 2,003 adults between March 30 and April 2 by American Express. This market is very local. Homes in Chicago are getting multiple offers and going for more than 10% over the asking price, for example, while those in Fort Lauderdale are selling for 20% less than list price, according to Zip Realty. When a buyer his ready to purchase a house, they should have enough cash for a down payment, which can be a minimum of 10%, and extra funds for closing costs, including appraisal costs and move-in deposit. Buyers need to make sure that if they are buying a used house, they need to check any additions or construction to an existing home have been properly filed with the city and approved for better appraisal or buyer can purchase a new house if they would want to. When he or she owns and lives in a house, there are many benefits that come with owning and living in the house. The following are the benefits of living in a house. One major benefit of living in a house is safety and privacy. In apartments there are limited. Living in a house, He or she does not have too many neighbors around him or her compares to living in apartments where neighbors is literally next door and with in your arms reach. When he or she lives in a house, they are always on the ground floor, where in apartments tenants can have no choice but to climb those stairs and maybe all the way to the last floor. When he or she lives in a house, they definitely have no problem where to park their vehicle; they can have their own garage and a driveway, which is more comfortable and much safer than apartment’s parking lot. Apartments have a higher crime rate compare to any types of housing, According to the National Crime Prevention Council, the organization best known for McGruff the Crime Dog, apartments are eighty-five percent more likely to be victimized by burglaries compare to Even though one may feel safe living in a house or apartment, they still need to practice vigilance and prevention to avoid becoming a victim of property theft or other crimes. Buying a house can be great long term investment. As old and basic as it is, the number one rule in real estate still hasn't changed: location is everything. The area in which the house is located– its surroundings and distance from an urban center – has a profound impact on the long-term value of one’s home. Real estate experts have long cautioned against owning the most lavish house in the neighborhood or making extravagant home improvements that far outdo everything else around. The fact is that, generally speaking, pricey homes don not appreciate as much as more modest structures do. It is typically better to buy the least expensive house in an upscale neighborhood and make improvements. In such a case, your home will appreciate more in value. Although the average change in house prices are related to changes in fundamentals or perhaps market-wide bubbles, not all houses in a market appreciate at the same rate. Apartments only increase in rent as the years go by. Renters will never own a piece of the apartment or cash out any money they put in, unlike in paying the â€Å"mortgage. † If the owner continues paying the mortgage, in 15, 20 or 30 years (depending on the length of the loan) the house is theirs. Homeowner can deduct on their federal and state income taxes the amount of mortgage interest and real estate taxes they pay each year. For example, by itemizing deductions on the tax return, a married couple filing jointly can deduct $21,000 from his taxable income. A renting married couple may not have a lot of deductions, so they might choose the standard deduction, which is $10,300. Home receives an additional $10,700 in tax deduction than the renting couple. Assuming both couples each earn $100,000 per year. The renting couple would have to pay income tax on $89,700. The owning couple would pay tax on $79,000 difference of $10,000 owners can put in their pocket. Everyone wants to cut back on what they pay in taxes and home ownership not only decreases taxes, but builds equity. Equity is the difference between the market value of a property and the claims held against it. Having equity, homeowner may borrow money using equity as collateral. This is another benefit of buying a house instead of renting an apartment. While it can be costly it is a safer place to live that has long term-investment and tax advantage.

Lunenburg, Fred C. Organizational Structure Mintzberg Framework

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY VOLUME 14, NUMBER 1, 2011 Organizational Structure: Mintzberg’s Framework Fred C. Lunenburg Sam Houston State UniversityABSTRACT Henry Mintzberg suggests that organizations can be differentiated along three basic dimensions: (1) the key part of the organization, that is, the part of the organization that plays the major role in determining its success or failure; (2) the prime coordinating mechanism, that is, the major method the organization uses to coordinate its activities; and (3) the type of decentralization used, that is, the extent to which the organization involves subordinates in the decision-making process.Using the three basic dimensions —key part of the organization, prime coordinating mechanism, and type of decentralization—Mintzberg suggests that the strategy an organization adopts and the extent to which it practices that strategy result in five structural configurations: simple s tructure, machine bureaucracy, professional bureaucracy, divisionalized form, and adhocracy. Organizations exist to achieve goals. These goals are broken down into tasks as the basis for jobs. Jobs are grouped into departments. Departments in organizations may be characterized by marketing, sales, advertising, manufacturing, and so on.Within each department, even more distinctions can be found between the jobs people perform. Departments are linked to form the organizational structure. The organization’s structure gives it the form to fulfill its function in the environment (Nelson & Quick, 2011). The term organizational structure refers to the formal configuration between individuals and groups regarding the allocation of tasks, responsibilities, and authority within the organization (Galbraith, 1987; Greenberg, 2011) Very early organizational structures were often based either on product or function (Oliveira & Takahashi, 2012).The matrix organization structure crossed thes e two ways of organizing (Galbraith, 2009; Kuprenas, 2003). Others moved beyond these early approaches and examined the relationship between organizational strategy and structure (Brickley, Smith, Zimmerman, & Willett, 2002). This approach began with the landmark work of Alfred Chandler (1962, 2003), who traced the historical development of such large American corporations as DuPont, Sears, and General Motors. He concluded from his study that an organization’s strategy tends to influence its structure.He suggests that strategy indirectly determines such variables as the organization’s tasks, technology, and environments, and each of these influences the structure of the organization. More recently, social scientists have augmented Chandler’s thesis by contending that an organization’s strategy determines its environment, technology, and tasks. These variables, coupled with growth rates and power distribution, affect organizational 1 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY 2_____________________________________________________________________________________ tructure (Hall & Tolbert, 2009; Miles, Snow, Meyer, & Coleman, 2011). Henry Mintzberg (1992, 2009) suggests that organizations can be differentiated along three basic dimensions: (1) the key part of the organization, that is, the part of the organization that plays the major role in determining its success or failure; (2) the prime coordinating mechanism, that is, the major method the organization uses to coordinate its activities; and (3) the type of decentralization used, that is, the extent to which the organization involves subordinates in the decision-making process.The key parts of an organization are shown in Figure 1 and include the following. Strategic Apex Technostructure Middle Line Support Staff Operative Core Figure 1. The key parts of an organization. ? ? ? ? The strategic apex is top management and its support staff. In school districts , this is the superintendent of schools and the administrative cabinet. The operative core are the workers who actually carry out the organization’s tasks. Teachers constitute the operative core in school districts. The middle line is middle- and lower-level management. Principals are the middlelevel managers in school districts.The technostructure are analysts such as engineers, accountants, planners, researchers, and personnel managers. In school districts, divisions such as instruction, business, personnel, public relations, research and development, and the like constitute the technostructure. The support staff are the people who provide indirect services. In school districts, similar services include maintenance, clerical, food service, busing, legal counsel, and consulting to provide support. ? The second basic dimension of an organization is its prime coordinating mechanism. This includes the following: FRED C.LUNENBURG _________________________________________________ ____________________________________3 ? ? ? ? ? Direct supervision means that one individual is responsible of the work of others. This concept refers to the unity of command and scalar principles. Standardization of work process exists when the content of work is specified or programmed. In school districts, this refers to job descriptions that govern the work performance of educators. Standardization of skills exists when the kind of training necessary to do the work is specified. In school systems, this refers to state certificates required for the various ccupants of a school district’s hierarchy. Standardization of output exists when the results of the work are specified. Because the â€Å"raw material† that is processed by the operative core (teachers) consists of people (students), not things, standardization of output is more difficult to measure in schools than in other nonservice organizations. Nevertheless, a movement toward the standardization of output in schools in recent years has occurred. Examples include competency testing of teachers, state-mandated testing of students, state-mandated curricula, prescriptive learning objectives, and other efforts toward legislated learning.Mutual adjustment exists when work is coordinated through informal communication. Mutual adjustment or coordination is the major thrust of Likert’s (1987) â€Å"linking-pin† concept. The third basic dimension of an organization is the type of decentralization it employs. The three types of decentralization are the following: ? ? ? Vertical decentralization is the distribution of power down the chain of command, or shared authority between superordinates and subordinates in any organization. Horizontal decentralization is the extent to which non administrators (including staff) make decisions, or shared authority between line and staff.Selective decentralization is the extent to which decision-making power is delegated to different units within t he organization. In school districts, these units might include instruction, business, personnel, public relations, and research and development divisions. Using the three basic dimensions—key part of the organization, prime coordinating mechanism, and type of decentralization—Mintzberg suggests that the strategy an organization adopts and the extent to which it practices that strategy result in five structural configurations: simple structure, machine bureaucracy, professional bureaucracy, divisionalized form, and adhocracy.Table 1 summarizes the three basic dimensions associated with each of the five structural configurations. Each organizational form is discussed in turn. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY 4_____________________________________________________________________________________ Table 1. Mintzberg’s Five Organizational StructuresStructural Configuration Simple structure Machine bureaucracy Professional bureaucrac y Divisionalized form Adhocracy Prime Coordinating Mechanism Direct supervision Standardization of work processes Standardization of skills Standardization of outputs Mutual adjustment Key Part of Organization Strategic apex Technostructure Operating core Middle line Support staff Type of Decentralization Vertical and horizontal centralization Limited horizontal decentralization Vertical and horizontal decentralization Limited vertical decentralization Selective decentralizationSimple Structure The simple structure has as its key part the strategic apex, uses direct supervision, and employs vertical and horizontal centralization. Examples of simple structures are relatively small corporations, new government departments, medium-sized retail stores, and small elementary school districts. The organization consists of the top manager and a few workers in the operative core. There is no technostructure, and the support staff is small; workers perform overlapping tasks.For example, teach ers and administrators in small elementary school districts must assume many of the duties that the technostructure and support staff perform in larger districts. Frequently, however, small elementary school districts are members of cooperatives that provide many services (i. e. , counselors, social workers) to a number of small school districts in one region of the county or state. In small school districts, the superintendent may function as both superintendent of the district and principal of a single school. Superintendents in such school districts must be entrepreneurs.Because the organization is small, coordination is informal and maintained through direct supervision. Moreover, this organization can adapt to environmental changes rapidly. Goals stress innovation and long-term survival, although innovation may be difficult for very small rural school districts because of the lack of resources. Machine Bureaucracy Machine bureaucracy has the technostructure as its key part, use s standardization of work processes as its prime coordinating mechanism, and employs limited horizontal decentralization.Machine bureaucracy has many of the characteristics of Weber’s (1947) ideal bureaucracy and resembles Hage’s (1965) mechanistic organization. It has a high degree of formalization and work specialization. Decisions are centralized. The span of management is narrow, and the organization is tall—that is, many levels exist in the chain of command from top management to the bottom of the organization. Little horizontal or lateral coordination is needed. Furthermore, machine bureaucracy has a large technostruture and support staff. FRED C.LUNENBURG _____________________________________________________________________________________5 Examples of machine bureaucracy are automobile manufacturers, steel companies, and large government organizations. The environment for a machine bureaucracy is typically stable, and the goal is to achieve internal effi ciency. Public schools possess many characteristics of machine bureaucracy, but most schools are not machine bureaucracies in the pure sense. However, large urban school districts (New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago) are closer to machine bureaucracies than other medium-size or small school districts.Professional Bureaucracy Professional bureaucracy has the operating core as its key part, uses standardization of skills as its prime coordinating mechanism, and employs vertical and horizontal decentralization. The organization is relatively formalized but decentralized to provide autonomy to professionals. Highly trained professionals provide nonroutine services to clients. Top management is small; there are few middle managers; and the technostructure is generally small. However, the support staff is typically large to provide clerical and maintenance support for the professional operating core.The goals of professional bureaucracies are to innovate and provide high-quality services. Existing in complex but stable environments, they are generally moderate to large in size. Coordination problems are common. Examples of this form of organization include universities, hospitals, and large law firms. Some public school districts have many characteristics of the professional bureaucracy, particularly its aspects of professionalism, teacher autonomy, and structural looseness. For example, schools are formal organizations, which provide complex services through highly trained professionals in an atmosphere of structural looseness.These characteristics tend to broaden the limits of individual discretion and performance. Like attorneys, physicians, and university professors, teachers perform in classroom settings in relative isolation from colleagues and superiors, while remaining in close contact with their students. Furthermore, teachers are highly trained professionals who provide information to their students in accordance with their own style, and they are usually flexible in the delivery of content even within the constraints of the state- and district-mandated curriculum.Moreover, like some staff administrators, teachers, tend to identify more with their professions than with the organization. Divisionalized Form The divisionalized form has the middle line as its key part, uses standardization of output as it prime coordinating mechanism, and employs limited vertical decentralization. Decision making is decentralized at the divisional level. There is little coordination among the separate divisions. Corporate-level personnel provide some coordination. Thus, each division itself is relatively centralized and tends to resemble a machine bureaucracy.The technostructure is located at corporate headquarters to provide services INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY 6_____________________________________________________________________________________ to all divisions; support staff is located within each division. L arge corporations are likely to adopt the divisionalized form. Most school districts typically do not fit the divisionalized form. The exceptions are those very large school districts that have diversified service divisions distinctly separated into individual units or schools. For example, a school istrict may resemble the divisionalized form when it has separate schools for the physically handicapped, emotionally disturbed, and learning disabled; a skills center for the potential dropout; a special school for art and music students; and so on. The identifying feature of these school districts is that they have separate schools within a single school district, which have separate administrative staffs, budgets, and so on. Elementary and secondary school districts that have consolidated but retained separate administrative structures with one school board are also examples of the divisionalized form.As might be expected, the primary reason for a school district to adopt this form of structure is service diversity while retaining separate administrative structures. Adhocracy The adhocracy has the support staff as its key part, uses mutual adjustment as a means of coordination, and maintains selective patterns of decentralization. The structure tends to be low in formalization and decentralization. The technostucture is small because technical specialists are involved in the organization’s operative core. The support staff is large to support the complex structure.Adhocracies engage in nonroutine tasks and use sophisticated technology. The primary goal is innovation and rapid adaptation to changing environments. Adhocracies typically are medium sized, must be adaptable, and use resources efficiently. Examples of adhocracies include aerospace and electronics industries, research and development firms, and very innovative school districts. No school districts are pure adhocracies, but medium-sized school districts in very wealthy communities may have some o f the characteristics of an adhocracy. The adhocracy is somewhat similar to Hage’s (1965) organic organization.Strategy and Structure The work begun by Chandler and extended by Mintzberg has laid the groundwork for an understanding of the relationship between an organization’s strategy and its structure. The link between strategy and structure is still in its infancy stage. Further research in this area, particularly in service organizations like schools, will enhance school administrators’ understanding of school organizations (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2012). In the meantime, school leaders must recognize that organization strategy and structure are related. FRED C.LUNENBURG _____________________________________________________________________________________7 Conclusion Henry Mintzberg (1992, 2009) suggests that organizations can be differentiated along three basic dimensions: (1) the key part of the organization, that is, the part of the organization that plays the major role in determining its success or failure; (2) the prime coordinating mechanism, that is, the major method the organization uses to coordinate its activities; and (3) the type of decentralization used, that is, the extent to which the organization involves subordinates in the decision-making process.Using the three basic dimensions—key part of the organization, prime coordinating mechanism, and type of decentralization—Mintzberg suggests that the strategy an organization adopts and the extent to which it practices that strategy result in five structural configurations: simple structure, machine bureaucracy, professional bureaucracy, divisionalized form, and adhocracy. References Brickley, J. , Smith, C. , Zimmerman, J. L. , & Willett, J. (2002). Designing organizations to create value: From strategy to structure. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Chandler, A. D. (1962). Strategy and Structure. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chandler, A. D. (2003). Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the American industrial enterprise. Frederick, MD: Beard Books. Galbraith, J. R. (1987). Organization design. In J. W. Lorsch (Ed. ). Handbook of organizational behavior (pp. 343-357). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Galbraith, J. R. (2009). Designing matrix organizations that actually work: How IBM, Procter & Gamble, and others design for success. New York, NY: Wiley. Greenberg, J. 2011). Behavior in organizations (10th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hage, J. (1965). An axiomatic theory of organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 10, 289-320. Hall, R. H. , & Tolbert, P. S. (2009). Organizations: structures, processes, and outcomes (9th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kuprenas, J. A. (2003). Implementation and performance of a matrix organization structure. International Journal of Project Management, 21, 51-62. Likert, R. (1987). New Ppatterns of management. New York, NY: Garland.Lunenburg, F. C. , & Ornstein, A. O. (2012). Educational administration: Concepts and practices. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Miles, R. E. , Snow, C. C. , Meyer, A. D. , & Coleman, H. J. (2011). Organizational strategy, structure, and process. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press. Mintzberg, H. (1992). Structure in fives: Designing effective organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Mintzberg, H. (2009). Tracking strategies: Toward a general theory of strategy formation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Nelson, D. B. , & Quick, J. C. (2011). Understanding organizational behavior. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY 8_____________________________________________________________________________________ Oliveira, N. , & Takahashi, N. (2012). Automated organizations: Development and structure of the modern business firm. New York, NY: Springer. Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. (t rans. T. Parsons). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Redefining Gender Roles Of South And South By Elizabeth...

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