Primate distribution in southern India

Primate distribution in southern India Primate distribution in southern India The Western Ghats of India is one of the biological ‘hot spots’ of the world (Myers et al., 2000). The western slopes and the ridges of these hills are covered with evergreen tropical rainforests. The eastern slopes and the adjoining Deccan plateau harbor mainly deciduous forests. The Western Ghats are divided into two regions: the southern and the northern Western Ghats, south and north of the Palghat Gap respectively. The rainforest regions are particularly rich in arboreal mammals and avifauna. Among the mammals, the most obvious species are primates and squirrels. The distribution of nonhuman primates varies in the two regions of the Western Ghats. Lion-tailed macaques occur from the southern tip of the Western Ghats, up to north of Sharavathy River, where the rainforests of the medium altitude end. Bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs occur throughout the Ghats. The distribution of Nilgiri langur from the southern tip of the Western Ghats ends in the north at Brahmag iri, the region which also marks the end of Cullenia dominated forests (Pascal, 1988). South of Brahmagiri Hills, all four primate species are found in the forests of the Ghats. Primarily, bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs are found in the dry deciduous forests of the eastern slopes, whereas lion-tailed macaques and Nilgiri langurs are found in the rainforests at the ridge and the western slopes. Each major forest type, therefore, is inhabited by a macaque which is a frugivorous species, and a langur which is a folivorous species. In certain areas of the southern Western Ghats, the bonnet macaques seasonally intrude into the rainforests and become transiently sympatric with lion-tailed macaques and Nilgiri langurs (Sushma, 2004). Habitat specialists and habitat generalists Species that make use of a wide range of resources or habitats are generalists and they tend to be widely distributed, whereas species that make use of a narrow range of resources or habitats are specialists and they often have a limited distribution (Brown, 1984; Hanski, 1982; Hanski and Gyllenberg, 1997). According to Hanski and Gyllenberg (1997), the biogeographic distribution patterns of specialists are the result of their using relatively smaller habitats than those exploited by generalist’s species. Generalists and specialists use different cues to locate their habitat and necessary resources. The ecological niche occupied by a species results from trade-offs in the fitness gained in different habitats or on different resources, and the level of specialization of an organism should reflect these trade-offs (Bonsall et al. 2004). Generalists have an advantage in exploiting a wider range of resources, whereas specialists are assumed to be more efficient at using a particular resource (Strickler 1979). To survive and reproduce organisms must extract energy from substances present in the environment. However, not all organisms extract the same energy from the same sub-stances. Different organisms may specialize in the type of food they eat. The internal food-processing mechanism of an organism (gut, colon, metabolism, etc.) tends to become adapted to the particular diet in such a way that the quantity of energy the organism is able to extract from each food type is determined evolutionarily. Langurs Langurs could be considered a model for the study of social organization since they inhabit variety of ecological conditions (Sterck, 1999; Karanth et al, 2010; Karanth, 2010). They are known to exploit diverse habitats from thick forests to human dominated landscapes (Fooden, 1980; Prater, 1993; Kumara et al, 2009; Sharma et al, 2009). Even though certain traits such as male dispersal (Rajpurohit, 1987; Rajpurohit and Mohnot,1988; Sommer and Rajpurohit, 1989; Rajpurohit and Sommer, 1993; Launhardt et al, 2001; Borries et al, 2004; Sharma et al 2009;), female philopatry (Sterck, 1997; Sterck, 1998; Koenig, 2000; Koenig et al 2004; Sterck, 2005), infant transfer (Poirier, 1968; McKenna, 1979; Scollay, 1980; Stanford, 1992;Kumar, 2005; Brent, 2008) etc. are common to all langur species, striking habitat related differences are observed in their group composition and social organization (Sterck, 1998; Koenig et al, 1998; Sterck,1999; Harris, 2006; Snaith Chapman, 2007; Wich Sterck, 20 07). Hence studies on inter-specific differences in behavioral ecology of langurs can provide insight into some of the crucial questions of social systems and individual behavior patterns of these species. Hanuman langurs / Nilgiri langurs South Asia is home to 15 species of langurs (Walker Molur, 2007). Nilgiri langurs are usually found in tropical evergreen forests of the Western Ghats at an altitude of 500 meter above sea level (Sunderraj, 2001; Sunderraj Johnsingh, 2001) whereas the Hanuman langurs are distributed all over the Indian subcontinent-including several species/subspecies such as S. e. achates, S. e. hypoleucos/S. hypoleucos, S. e. priam/S. priam priam (Kumara et al, 2009; Sharma et al, 2009; Karanth et al, 2010; Karanth, 2010). Nilgiri langurs are known to be largely habitat specialists (Singh et al 1997; Sunderraj, 1998) and Hanuman langurs are habitat generalists (Kumara et al,2009; Sharma et al; 2009). Because of a restricted range of occurrence, it is expected that the Nilgiri langurs show less genetic variability and thus less flexibility than the Hanuman langurs. Nilgiri langurs are mainly arboreal (Poirier, 1968; Sunderraj, 2001) whereas Hanuman langurs tend to be more terrestrial (Roonwal Moh not, 1977). Hanuman langurs are more adaptable influenced by availability and distribution of food (Chhangani Mohnot, 2006). Home ranges of Hanuman langurs are larger and they overlap extensively (Chalise, 1995; Chhangani, 2000; Chhangani Mohnot, 2006). Nilgiri langurs are more territorial and occupy smaller home ranges (Poirier, 1968; Sushma, 2004). In Hanuman langurs, the groups can be one male bisexual, multimale bisexual or all male band groups (Borries, 1997; Koenig et al, 1997; Sharma et al, 2009) and Nilgiri langurs are primarily one male bisexual groups (Poirier, 1968; Sunderraj, 2001). Behavioural studies on Hanuman langurs have been intensively carried out at various locations in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka (Monhot and Srivastava, 1992; Rajpurohit et al. 1994). However, in India, these studies have been conducted mainly in arid environment (Rajpurohit et al. 1994) and in dry/moist deciduous forests (Vasudev, 2006). Hanuman langurs are successful in their ability to adapt to a wide variety of habitats showing high social flexibility making them the ideal species for studies. However, very little has been known about the rainforest Hanuman langurs expect for one study on feeding ecology (Singh et al, 2011; Roy et al. 2012). It will be of interest to explore the social adaptations in the rainforest Hanuman langurs and to see how their behavior have evolved in comparison to arid environment. Studies on Nilgiri langurs suggest that the social structure and relationships and their behavioural patterns resemble that of Hanuman langurs (Poirier, 1968; Tanaka, 1965). Changes in ecological factors like habitat destruction and fragmentation, langur habitats may have been reduced leading to changes in group composition and social system (Sunderraj and Johnshingh, 2001). The present study will be conducted to better understand both langur species’ behavioural patterns and social systems to explore and carry out comparative analysis on differences in their present environmental conditions. The aim of the present study is to employ same methodology to study the behavioral ecology of Nilgiri langurs and Hanuman langurs and attempt a quantitative comparative analysis. Hence, the study has been designed with the following title. Looking for behavioral flexibility TRAITS TO BE STUDIED Life history traits On the base of the above mentioned differences between the two species. The life history of hanuman langur is expected to be more of r-type and Nilgiri langur to be more of K-type. Being primarily the dwellers of rainforests, Nilgiri langurs are expected to be more efficiency oriented whereas Hanuman langurs, being habitat generalists, are expected to be more reproductive efficiency oriented. This may result in differences in birth dynamics such as net reproductive rates, duration of infant dependency on the mother and infant development patterns. It is also suggested that different habitats and group dynamics may have an influence on reproductive (Rajpurohit et al, 1994) or competitive efficiency. Social system Large interspecific variation in group size is seen in Hanuman langurs (Sterck, 1998; Sterck, 1999; Sharma et al, 2009) whereas Nilgiri langurs tend to cluster around the mean (Joseph Ramachandran, 2001; Sunderraj, 2001). Female between group aggressions and infanticide (Rajpurohit et al, 2003; Rajpurohit Chhangani, 2003; Sharma et al, 2009) has been recorded only in Hanuman langur (Sterck, 1998) and not in any other langur species (Van schaik1992). Although the moving range of Nilgiri langur and Hanuman langur are found to be similar (0.1km and 0.15km respectively), Nilgiri langurs are said to travel less due to availability and abundance of food resources in their habitat (Tanaka, 1965). The Nilgiri langur has a unimale social system which is formed when juvenile males in a group mature to adulthood and then the group fissions into smaller unimale groups. In Hanuman langurs, group composition is formed according to the availability and distribution of food and space. There are three types of groups in Hauman Langurs, which are unimale, multimale and all male groups. A linear hierarchy exists amongst the females in Nilgiri langur where as in Hanuman langurs dominance hierarchy among females is less definitive than among males. Dominance hierarchies in Hanuman langurs were found to be significantly linear and relatively stable, but less so with increasing group size (Koenig, 2000). Individual behaviour Compared to Macaca, langurs show less frequent individual behavior differences (Tanaka, 1965). Although Nilgiri langur and Hanuman langur are relatively similar in their group size, composition and organization and also in behavioural patterns, intra- and inter- group activities are seen less in Nilgiri langurs when compared to Hanuman langurs. Behaviors like grooming, mounting and presenting, juvenile plays, etc were observed to be less frequent among Nilgiri langurs. Sugiyama (1965) observed that langurs travel widely when the food availability was sparse. In Nilgiri langurs, the habitat is usually forage abundant and good quality resulting in lesser travel. In Hanuman langurs the range size differs on the availability and quality of food in their distributional habitat/zone. As a result, more varied vocal communication is expected in Hanuman langurs than Nilgiri langurs. STUDY GROUPS One group each of Hanuman Langur and Nilgiri langur has been selected. Hanuman langur – Many intensive studies have been carried out on the populations of Hanuman langurs in arid, deciduous and semi-evergreen habitats. Since there is a lack of systematic and long-term study on rainforest Hanuman langurs, the present study will be carried out in rainforests of the Western Ghats at Gerusoppa, Uttara Kannada district. A unimale group (total 17) with 8 females, 5 juveniles/subadults and 3 infants has been selected. Nilgiri langur- For comparative analysis, a study group in Nelliyampathy, Kerala (Western Ghats) has been selected. A unimale group (total 14) with 8 femals, 3 juveniles and 2 infants has been selected. STUDY AREA The study area is low altitude degraded coastal evergreen rainforest in the Western Ghats of north Karnataka in Uttara Kannada district (Gerusoppa). Forest is mainly Dipterocarpus-Holigarna-Persia species with an average altitude of 650 m with an average annual precipitation of 4200mm with relatively high humidity of 95%. Ecologically this stretch of forest is important because, this is the northern most distribution of lion tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) which is sympatric with bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) and western hanuman langur (Semnopithecus entellus achates) (Kumara and Singh, 2004). Nelliyampathy is a Hill Station on the Western Ghats mountain ranges in Palakkad, Kerala. The green lush forest covers the whole hill area with coffee, tea, cardamom, vegetable and orange plantations. Nelliyampathy plateau lies at an altitude of 500-1000m. Major vegetation is evergreen, semi evergreen and moist deciduous. The forest mainly comprises of Cullenia, Mesua and Palaquim (Ramachandran and Joseph 2000). Three species of primates namely Bonnet Macaque, Lion tailed Macaque and Nilgiri langur are found in this habitat. Study Parameteres 1. To study the general activity pattern of the study species a. What are the different types of activity they do? b. What is the duration of different observed activities of each species? 2. To study the different social behaviour within a single group of each species a. Which are the socio-positive behaviour (like play, groom, inter- individual distances etc.) within a single group? b. Which are socio-negative behaviour (aggression, fight, bark etc.) within a single group? c. What kind of reproductive behaviour are shown in the adult individuals of a single group? 3. To study the inter-group interaction of each study species a. What is frequency of inter-group interaction with the neighbouring group of each study species? b. What kind of inter-group interaction they show with their neighbouring group? 4. To study the demography and social structures of the study species a. What is the group size of each study species? b. What is the age-sex ratio of the respective groups? OBSERVATIONAL METHODS Three methods have been adopted in this study for data collection they are: Ad libitum sampling The data is in the form of notes for events as and when they occur. We simply note down whatever is visible and seems relevant at that time. The events include identity of the individual and direction of agonistic encounter like threat, attack, dominance mount, subordinate present and displacement among individuals of a group. It is useful during preliminary observation or for recording rare but important facts. Focal animal sampling One individual was the focus of observations during a particular sample period of 5 minutes-Usually for several different categories of behaviour. What is recorded here is the behaviour of those individuals that are most easily observed. The choice of the focal individual is determined prior to the observation. During this period the time spent by the individual on different activities is recorded. It is also important to record certain aspects of other individual’s behaviour such as interaction with others and to whom a behaviour is directed. When the focal individual moves completely out of sight the recording would be stopped until it is visible again. Scan Sampling Instantaneous sampling or scan sampling was used here to study the different activity pattern of the individual animals. The methods involved collecting data on all visible individuals of the group. This was done for a period of 5min in which each individual was observed and data was collected through a pre-formatted data sheet. Data on distance between the individuals (any two particular individuals, one is nearest and other is distant one at an instant of time) was collected through scan sampling. During a scan, the data was gathered on: Date; Time; Individual (with identity); Activity (including Resting, Ranging, Foraging; Feeding on insects, Feeding on plant (specify the plant part being used), Social behavior; Substratum used (while feeding on insects); Place (tree or ground); Height of the tree; Height at individual was seen; Plant species (when the individual fed on plant food). Definition of Activities: Resting – Passivity lasting at least 5 seconds; Ranging – Travel and movement; Feeding – Ingestion of plant or animal food; Foraging – Searching for food; Social behavior – Any interaction between/among conspecific individuals. Study Period The study on Nilgiri langurs was carried out in Nelliyampathy reserve forest, nenmara forest division in Palakkad district of kerala.We observed the group of Nilgiri langurs from December 2010 to April 2011 and from April 2012 to January 2013 as a part of a large study on the behavior of primates in the Western Ghats. The amount of time spent on focal animal sampling was 235 h and 915 scans were collected. The study on S.hypoleucos was carried out in Gerusoppa forest division in the state of Karnataka.We observed the group of S.hypoleucos from January 2011 to April 2012 as part of the same study. The amount of time spent on focal animal sampling was 270 h and 1070 scans.

Annotation: Dante?s Inferno, Page 81, L 31 to Page 82, L 63 :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The encounter between Dante, the main character, and Filippo Argenti, a member of the condemned, deals with Dante’s response to Argenti’s place in hell, his disdain for Argenti, and his symbolic rejection of sin by his actions. Dante has no sympathy towards Argenti even though Argenti is condemned to stay in the slimy River of Styx until the Judgment. Dante holds great animosity towards Argenti carried on from conflicts they have had in life to the putrid circles of hell. The hostility Dante demonstrates marks his progression in his journey of purification. With his unprecedented denouncement of a sinner, Dante has proven his journey through hell has not been traveled in vain, but effectively to cleanse his sins from his soul.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dante reacts with curses upon hearing the calling of Filippo Argenti. As Dante crosses the River of Styx on a boat with his guide, Virgil, Argenti cries out to Dante from the river for Argenti had recognized a live man on the boat. Upon identifying his partner in conversation, Dante changes his tone and curses Argenti. Dante says, â€Å"May you [Argenti] weep and wail to all eternity, for I know you, hell-dog, filthy as you are.† Dante explicitly curses Argenti, inducing other sinners also condemned to the River of Styx to attack Argenti. As Argenti wails in response to the attack, Dante sails away and thanks God that â€Å"the loathsome spirit† is mangled.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dante’s actions display a great disdain for Argenti, which had been brought into hell from life on the world above. Dante curses Argenti with rage and strong resentment, obvious evidence that Dante and Argenti do not get along. Dante denounces Argenti and refers to him as a hell-dog. Dante has such immense contempt for Argenti that he refuses to even speak his name. In life, Dante and Argenti had been bitter political enemies, and Dante’s sharp remarks are meant to insult Argenti and his political group. Dante took special measures to make his disdain for Argenti as clear as possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By denouncing a sinner, Argenti, for the first time, Dante has shown evidence of purification. Because denouncing a sinner is an acknowledgement of a sin, the sin is expelled. Thus, Dante purifies himself of being wrathful from his own soul by denouncing Argenti. Dante’s journey through the first five circles of hell has hardened Dante’s heart towards sinful men.

A Comparison of The Chrysalids and 1984 :: comparison compare contrast essays

   A comparison of life in London, Air Strip One (or Great Britain) in the George Orwell novel '1984' and Waknuk, Canada in the John Wyndham novel 'The Chrysalids.' Waknuk is a society living after a nuclear attack. The people of Air Strip One (or Britain) in 1984 live in a dictatorship controlled by "The Party".      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Waknuck is an enclosed society similar to Victorian Britain. As people spend all their lives in the town or city they are born they can't experience different cultures and therefore have a lack of tolerance and understanding for differences in the lifestyles of these cultures. The lack of experience of different cultures is not the reason for a lack of a true understanding of these cultures in 1984. The people of London are effectively poisoned against such cultures by the Party and so have no reason to want to experience them.  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Waknuck is also based largely on Religion - it is a Christian society. Most of the prejudices are formed from the Bible. Any creature that is against "the true image of God" (or a mutant) is called a Blasphemy. The Christian religion (and indeed other religions) have been the source of numerous prejudices in modern society in Britain (for example sexism and homophobia) and indeed conflicts (for example the conflicts between the Republic and Northern Ireland). In the novel '1984' no-one follows a religion as such, as far as the people of Britain in 1984 are concerned there is no God, the complete opposite of the radical religious views of the people of Waknuk. Most people in Waknuk have been 'brainwashed' by Christianity in the same way many people in Great Britain in 1984 have been 'brainwashed' by the party and Big Brother. Each use repetitive slogans, in 1984 such slogans as: "War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength." are used and more subtly in Christianity in the form of prays and commandments. The Party and Christians each worship a figure, Big Brother and God respectively, neither people can be completely sure of   there presence but convince themselves that they exist nevertheless. The power lies with the Party in 1984 but lies with the church in Waknuk.         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The people of Waknuk are unable to comprehend theories such as the Evolution Theory dispute finding fossils and other evidence that would conflict with Genesis.

George Gordon Byron Essay -- George Gordon Byron Essays Biography

George Gordon Byron   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Their are many different opinions on the written works of George Gordon Byron which could include one very big question. Was he a natural born poet or simply a product of abuse and mental illness. His writings may have been more a way to ease his pa and suffering rather than a natural talent. Perhaps his writings were a form of self therapy? Throughout his writings and life history there is much evidence to suggest that his poetry was being greatly influenced by his mental instability. I have l rned much on this great poet and I too believe that his writings were influenced greatly because of the pain and abuse he suffered in his youth. I will attempt to point out the many possibilities to this.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  George Gordon Byron was known as Lord Byron during his lifetime. Byron was born in 1788 and died at the early age of thirty-six in the year 1824. His handsome face, riotous living and many love affairs made Byron the most talked-of man of his day. H was known as a romantic, fascinating figure to his fellow Englishmen. In our current century his reputation has dwindled to merely being known as a poet. His childhood was colorful to say the least. There is much evidence to suggest mental instabilit was inherent in his family. Byron was born on Jan.22, 1788 in London. His great-uncle from whom he inherited the title, was known as â€Å"wicked Lord Byron†; his father army officer, was called â€Å"mad Jack† Byron. This wealth and the nick names of the Byron en went back to at least as far a Lord Byron’s’ Grandfather, a Vice Admiral, known as â€Å"Foul Weather Jack†. He was giving this name as he had a reputation of attracting storms. These titles given to his family only adds to the evidence of mental insta lity. Here’s an interesting note: (His family had a long tradition of marrying its cousins, consequently, there were some oddities among their ancestors. Byron’s grandfather â€Å"Foul Weather Jack† hated his sons and spent a great deal of time trying to destroy their estate, Newstead. He hoped to leave nothing for his sons, so he encouraged swarms of crickets o run throughout the house.) (His Life www.edenpr.k12.mn.usephs/ArcadiaWeb)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Born with a clubfoot, he was sensitive about it all his life. When he was just three his father died, leaving the family with nearly nothing to survive on. His parents, Catherine Gordon Byron (of the ... ..., self-sacrificing, and accepting of her ate to the point of victimization. In the early episode, Donna Julia breads somewhat out of this role by being the older (23 years old!) married woman and not the innocent girl. Byron thus somewhat reverses gender roles and has the sexually mature woman take a m e active role in seducing the naive and innocent young man. (Don Juan, Canto I http://citd.scar.untoronto.ca/English/ENGBO2Y/DonJuan.html).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe that Lord Byron was expressing is own pain of the sexual abuse he endured b May Grey at school in his earlier childhood in the character Donna Julia. So in my opinion of all I have discovered about this literary poet is that Lord Byron was not born with a talent for writing poetry. He however did write from his own heart. Wh h is what a truly brilliant poet must do. Had he not have been exposed to physical and sexual abuse in his youth. I feel there is a good possibility he would have never written a single poem He would have had a different profession altogether along w h an entirely different life style. The world was blessed with the many poems of Lord Bryon but only through the suffering of another human being.

Personal Narrative - Russias Communist Society and its Government :: Russian History

Lenin promised peace to the Russian people, but it was an illusion that never came, for the country where my great-grandfather remained with the majority of my family soon sunk into civil war. Untouched by man, the snow lay still and smooth, cloaked in white purity. Guilt filled my every step as piles of snow crumbled helplessly under my heavy feet. At the door I paused to look upon the path my footsteps had made only to become discouraged at the beauty I had destroyed. Silently, she sat by the drafty window in her dimly lit apartment. Her long, silver hair fell in frantic, unruly curls about her face, yet she made no attempt to brush them aside. When she spoke, it was not as if she was directing her words toward me, or anyone else in the room. Instead she spoke to the window and the winter winds blowing feverishly outside. She asks if I ever noticed how one could feel and smell a snowstorm hours before the first flakes begin to fall. The harsh Russian winters of her youth had left her with a sixth sense in predicting oncoming blizzards. Slowly she lets out a shallow sigh as she remembers how her family could feel the oncoming revolution months before 1917. The Bolsheviks' climb to power was a slow and involved process, much like the time it takes for a few snowflakes to turn into a blizzard. She tells how the smell of revolution was powerful enough to encourage the majority of her family to escape Russia before it was too late. Her father, however, was a Cossack, a royal officer to the Tsar and a servant to Russia. Despite the Bolsheviks' increasing power and the threat of revolution, her father remained close to the Tsar, putting himself in constant danger. For the first time, tears fill her eyes, and she tells me the sad horror that the Revolution inflicted upon her family. Like an unstoppable force of nature, the Russian communist party not only tore apart the government of 1917, but also divided families and destroyed the lives of many Russians. The woman sitting in the chair revealing her life story to me is my grandmother. Although the memories are painful for her to recall, she states how important it is to know one's heritage. As a child, I was weaned on the stories of my Russian ancestors, and in school I had read textbooks discussing the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Disadvantage of democracy Essay

The primary disadvantages of democracy are a general lack of accountability, the prospect of personal interest becoming the predominant factor in decisions, and negative financial implications. A democracy lays the power to make decisions in the hands of the majority. This, ironically, places an emphasis on both individual and group power. A group controls the decision-making process, but an influential individual can control the group. The issue with democracy, in spite of the power of the people to control the decision-making process, is that there is no sense of accountability when the group makes a decision that turns out to be a bad one. Even particularly influential individuals in the group who may have persuaded the majority to vote for what led to the bad decision is free from blame because, ultimately, everyone in the group is responsible for his or her choice. In this way democracy, although a group-oriented approach, can become very much about what individuals believe is best for themselves and not for the majority. This type of decision-making also can be very expensive and have negative financial implications. First, a considerable amount of money can be spent in persuading voters to support an idea or cause. Second, voters may embrace an idea or cause, such as lowering taxes, because it sounds ideal when, in practice, it could lead to financial disaster. Disadvantages of Democracy Making the wrong choice In a democratic country, it is the common man who has the supreme right to choose their legislature and their prevailing authorities. As per a general study, not all the people are completely conscious of the political circumstances in their nation. The common masses may not be acquainted of the political matters in their society. This may lead to common man taking an erroneous selection during election. Authorities May Lose focus As the government is bound to changes and modification after each election tenure, the authorities may function with a interim objective. Since they have to go through an election procedure after the conclusion of each tenure, they may lose focus on functioning effectively for the citizens and  instead might concentrate on winning elections. Hordes Have Influence A further disadvantage of democracy is that hordes can manipulate citizens. People may vote in support of a party under the pressure of the bulk. Constrained or influenced by the ideas of those around, an individual may not put across his/her accurate judgment. Democracy averts radicalism and encourages teamwork and synchronization. It also slows things down, stops those in authority doing what they wish regardless of the majority’s desires. Since the military incursion into the Nigerian political scene on January 15, 1966, all the woes of this country are placed on the military. Most Nigerians do not want to hear the word â€Å"military†. They see the military as synonymous with evil. But does the military symbolize evil? Colonel Muamma Gaddafi is a military officer who seized power from the Libyan Monarch in 1969. Colonel Muamma Gaddafi as a military leader, was able to transform Libya to the envy of the world so much that other nationals including Nigerians are queuing at the Libyan embassy for her visa. Under a military leadership in Libya, Nigerians are rushing to the country on a daily basis because the country has a lower inflation of 1% than that of Nigeria which is 20% and a per capita of $8,400 while Nigeria’s per capital is $50. If military regime is synonymous with evil, why are Nigerians running from a country that is under civil rule to a country which is under a military leader? Ghana, our neighbouring West African country was also transformed from a corrupt and poverty stricken nation it was, to a transparent and an accountable nation by a military officer, Flight lieutenant, John Jerry Rawlings. At the moment, Nigerians are running to live in Ghana because the country has improved tremendously in terms of economy and infrastructural development. Ghana has also attained democratic growth and stability having transited from one democratically elected government to another two times. However, let us now compare and contrast the difference between military and civil rules in Nigeria. Nigeria gained independence from Britain on October 1, 1960. Out of the 50 years of Nigeria’s existence as an independent  nation, the military has ruled the country for 29 years. Within the 29 years the military ruled the country, 3 years were used to prosecute the Nigerian civil war, between 1967 to 1970, this means the military actually spent 26 years to rule the country. Out of the 50 years of the nation’s existence, civilians have ruled for 21 years. So, the difference between the years the military have ruled the country and those of civilians nine years. The questions one is asking are, if the military has destroyed the country within the space of 29 years as claimed by the civil leaders, can’t the civil leaders repair it within a space of 21 years? How long does it take to repair what is damaged? What has the civilian leaders be able to remedy since they have been ruling the country? Since Nigeria returned to democracy in 1999, we are still hearing the same old song by politicians, â€Å"You know the military have destroyed the country and you know that it is not easy to repair what has been destroyed†. I find this excuse unacceptable to the Nigerian people because something that was destroyed can be repaired. For instance, Germany, France, Austria etc were devastated during the first and second World War but today they have rebuilt to enviable status. Of all the things the military destroyed, which of them has the civilian leaders been able to put right? Some politicians who are out to deceive the poor masses will say that â€Å"the worst civilian regime is better than military regime.† But is it always true that the worst civilian regime is better than military regime? Politicians are also quick to say that â€Å"at least we can talk now that we are in a civilian regime and that we could not talk during the military administrations.† I found this argument very amusing because our mouths were not muzzled by the military during their administrations. I make bold to say that we spoke more during the military administrations than we do today because then we all saw the military as our common enemy and were united to fight against them. There were so many civil society organizations such as National Democratic Coalition (NADECO) which was headed by late Pa Adekunle Ajasin, Campaign for Democracy headed by late Dr. Beko Ransom Kuti, Civil Liberties Organization headed by former President of Nigerian Bar Association ( NBA ), Olisa Agbakoba (SAN), Afenifere, the Yoruba socio- cultural group headed by late Pa Abraham Adesanya, Association of Senior Staff Union of Uni versities, headed by the INEC Chairman, Professor Atahiru Jega, Petroleum and Natural Gas Senior Staff Association of Nigeria (PENGASSAN ), headed by Chief Frank Ovie Kokori etc. These civil society groups spoke openly against the ills of the military and sent them back to the barracks. At that time too, journalists engaged in revolutionary journalism which made the press very vibrant and added impetus to the voice of the masses. During the military era, television and radio stations were mostly owned by both states and the federal governments. DAAR communications, owner of African Independent Television and Ray power Radio station and Minaj television and FM radio station which started in 1994 were the only privately owned broadcast organizations in the country, the rest belonged to both the states and federal governments. Would the governments have allowed the masses to use their media to criticize them? There is no government that allows such a thing in any part of the world. Let us assume that we did not talk during military administrations, what have we achieved since 1999 that we have been talking? Have those who claimed to be representing us both in th e State Houses of Assembly and the National Assembly ever taken our advise? We said the National Assembly should pass the Freedom of Information Bill into law, have they done it since it was introduced into the house? We said the Justice Mohammed Uwais recommendations on Electoral Reform be adopted by the National Assembly, have they adopted them? The Federal Government has earmarked #6.6 billion towards the celebration of Nigeria’s 50th anniversary, which the masses condemned in totality, yet the Federal Government is bent on wasting such amount of money on the celebration of failure. Will the States and Federal Governments ever listen to the masses? We said the huge allowances our so call representatives are receiving should be reduced, did they agree to reduce their allowances? A senator receives #45 million allowance quarterly, while each member of the House of Representatives receives #27.2 million allowance quarterly. Each senator receives #500 million constituency development allowance yearly which is not accounted for. Their salaries and other benefits are not included these allowances. Is there justification for such huge allowances considering the fact that they sit for 180 days in a year? Can we say with a sense of pride that the lives of Nigerians have improved positively since we returned to democracy in 1999? Let me make it clear that democracy is not just about having freedom to talk, it goes beyond mere talking. Democracy is about quality leadership that translates  into accelerated development and growth in all areas of human aspirations. Democracy goes beyond just having civilians in government. Any administration, be it military or civil government that cannot better or improve the lives of the people is a monumental failure. The main purpose of governance is to coordinate and harness the wealth of the people for an effective development that will enhance the standard of living of the people. Have we seen such achievements and development since 1999? Let us compare and contrast civil administrations since 1999 till date and military administrations from 1985 till 1999 when the military handed over the reins of power to civilians. We shall start this comparison with the economy. Before the civilians took over government in 1999, a 50 kg bag of rice was sold for N2,500, today it is selling for N8,000. A small bag of beans that was sold for N1,800, now sells for as much as N7,000. Is this not outrageous. Before the commencement of the Obasanjo’s regime in 1999, Nigerians were able to eat twice daily. Morning and night, which was popularly called one –zero-one. At present, most Nigerians eat once daily, which is popularly called zero – one- zero. Is this not regression? If the agricultural sector is well funded and productive, why are prices of foodstuffs on the increase? The unemployment rate has gone up drastically because many industries are closing down while some are relocating to our neighbouring countries due to lack of regular supply of electricity. The Obasanjo’s regime in 1999, inherited 3,500 megawatts of electricity from the military, today it has reduced to a mere 2,500 megawatts for a population of 150 million people. The problems of industries and other organizations that consume large quantity of electricity are compounded as a result of the high cost of petroleum products such as petrol and diesel. These products are used to power generators which provide alternative power for industries. As at the time Nigeria return to democracy in 1999, the prices of petroleum product were cheap. But before ex-president Olusegun Obasanjo, who also doubled as petroleum minister, left office in 2007, he had increased the prices of these products eleven times. A litre of kerosene that cost N9.00 in 1999, now sells for N125.00. Petrol that cost N11.00 at that time, now goes for N65.00 while diesel that cost N10.00 then now sells for N120 per litre.

How Consumer Insight Are Shaping Companies in India Essay

Customer is King is an adage that most companies across the globe have embraced. The need to concentrate on customers and be responsive to their demands has long been acknowledged by organizations. However, with globalisation and technological revolution the dynamics of business, the meaning of customer and market knowledge have all undergone a transformation. Today, the customer is the controlling factor in business and to be market-driven, an organisation has to evolve a culture that constantly listens to the customer, analyses competition and has strategies that meet existing, anticipated and even unanticipated needs of the customer. Going one step further, organizations must focus on customer relationship management which has given way to customer knowledge management. Given the international environment and knowledge economy, market and customer intelligence serves as a core competency and a principal source of competitive advantage. Leading by listening Practically every success story in today’s corporate realm reflects how awareness of customer needs shapes competitive business strategy. Let’s look at some examples. Procter & Gamble When P&G, the largest consumer goods company in the world, chose to offer its products to the lower income customer in developing countries, it had research teams associating with the poorest of homes for weeks. This gave the company valuable insights, which aided the company in creating a range of products that suited the pockets of this segment, enabling it to gain substantial market share. Amazon.com Amazon.com, the first e-retailer of books in the world, attained competitive advantage by emerging as book lovers’ forum where they could also share knowledge. It maintains customer knowledge through services such as book reviews, access to order histories and product recommendations based on preceding orders. Consequently, Amazon has recorded more than 70% repeat orders from its customers. Mahindra & Mahindra Mahindra & Mahindra’s SUV, Scorpio, has experienced enormous success in domestic and international markets. The positioning of Scorpio as an economy SUV was centered on the findings of extensive market visits and exploration of customer needs. The customer needs and wants ascertained were transformed into product specifications for Scorpio. Customer groups were consulted at every stage of design and product development. Scorpio was designated as the â€Å"Car of the Year† by ‘BBC on Wheels’ shortly after its launch. Indian Railways The amazing transformation of Indian Railways from what was termed as a white elephant to a profit making entity in less than two years has caught the attention of Indian and foreign academic and corporate establishments. This turnaround was not owing to any high-end technology but to a modest information means — the passenger feedback form. Data attained from these forms was analysed to identify customer expectations from the Railways. This was supported by a study of the best railways worldwide, and benchmarking with other transportations such as roadways and airlines. The outcome was a complete renovation of trains, stations and railway services to render them passenger-friendly. Needless to say, customers welcomed this change. The above examples highlight that it is vital to listen to customers for a success marketer-customer relationship, where the customer is not just a beneficiary, but a partner. Effective listening, together with strategic initiatives, can bring about a happily-ever-after end to this association.